Cosmopolitanism Ethics In A World Of Strangers Philosophy Essay

Cosmopolitanism Ethics In A World Of Strangers Philosophy EssayThe concord, Cosmopolitanism Ethics in a World of Strangers, is a clear and hearty-written book which is honorable to read. K. A. Appiah is himself a citizen of the benignant being a professor of philosophy at Princeton, with a Ghanian go and an English mformer(a), he was raised in Ghana and educated in England, and also lived in Africa, Europe and North America. After reading this book, I prolong to say that Appiah skillfully blends his philosophical ideas with anecdotes manywhat his own life and background. It brings us too m all places and we come in to know him a microscopical and also his father, mother, and various(a) other kinsfolk and tribe members. He introduces us to many traditions, practices and ideas of his Afri cornerst genius ancestry to clarify his ideas on human interactions, conversations, and globalisation. It reassesses the case for reviving an ancient sprout of thought in a world full of strangers, and incurs that Cosmopolitanism is a usual trait of humankind. The oerall scheme of the book concerns the principles of the existence of different sight prep be shape by a simple nexus of common honors and humanity.1.1 Introduction Marking ConversationAppiah starts with the feature that our ancestors lived in small tribes where they interacted with a small habilitate of people who they k spic-and-span. Others were of rival tribes and to be viewed with suspicion. Information about other managements of life didnt rattling flow into the village. That was in the old days. Nowadays, our human world is getting smaller now, because people restrain more access to distri stillively other than ever before in history. We be getting to know and access for each angiotensin-converting enzyme other by migration, international trade, tourism, and the worldwide web of information, which comes from radio, television, telephones, and especially the internet. This mass media and the amazing cyberspace give us plenty of opportunities not only that we stop affect the lives of others all(prenominal)where but that we eject to learn about life anywhere, too(p xiii).The world is getting smaller and we be living in a new global tribe in the face of the world globalization. How ar we to deal with these new circumstances? What ideas and institutions flowerpot help us to live together in this global village? Appiah addresses the notion of cosmopolitanism, that is the challenge to take minds and hearts formed over the long millennia of living in local troops and equip them with ideas and institutions that impart allow us to live together as the global tribe we have become(p xiii). The notion actually combines two inter-related strands One is the idea that we have pledges to others, obligations that gallop beyond those to whom we are related by the ties of kith and kin, or horizontal the more formal ties of shared citizenship(p xv). The other is that we take seriously the value not right of human life but of particular human lives, which means taking an interest in the practices and beliefs that lend them significance (p xv). Appiah believes that it is an obligation to understand those with whom we share this planet. populate are different, and thither is much to learn from our divagations. Because there are so many human possibilities value exploring, we neither expect nor desire that every mortal or every society should converge on a single mode of life. Appiah also stresses that whatever our obligations are to others (or theirs to us) they often have the right to go their own way (p xv), it is take note for vestibular sense.According to Appiah, cosmopolitanism is more accommodating of diversity than the current liberal consensus but does not fall into moralistic relativism. Cosmopolitanism embodies two inwardness value universal concern for all humanity above family and nation and a respect for legitimate difference. Appiah recognizes that these two value clash, and as such(prenominal) cosmopolitanism is the arouse not of the solution but of the challenge (p. xv). Appiah takes a step yet to summarise the challenges, which are (1) to avoid falling into moral relativism while respecting difference (2) to find a middle way between an un grow abstract universalism and self-interested nationalism (3) to recognise that cultural difference has been exaggerated by an order of magnitude (p. xix) and (4) to work for conversation, in the sense both of association and exchange of ideas, while real numberising that humanity will neer arrive at an applyd hierarchy of universal values. Cosmopolitanism is a litigate involving the human companionship in habits of co-existence, of conversation in its older meaning, of living together, association (p. xix). The crux of getting along is to recognise that while one exponent live with integrity in accordance with ones own beliefs, one does not need to share t he a same(p)(p) rationale with someone else to develop this habit of conservation.In the interpretation of cosmopolitanism, Appiah is sympathetic to the view that local loyalties and allegiances are important because they determine who we are. So he encourages us to embrace both local and universal loyalties and allegiances and denies that they of necessity come into conflict with each other. He holds that we need to take sides neither with the nationalist who abandons all foreigners nor with the hard-core cosmopolitan who regards friends and fellow citizens with icy impartiality. The position worth defending might be called (in both senses) a partial cosmopolitanism. So he stakes out his middle ground of partial cosmopolitanism more by talking about what its not. On the positive side, we get a lot of commonplaceities its important to talk with people from other cultures, to maintain mutual respect, to learn about other ways of life. We need the curiosity inherent in a partial co smopolitan outlook so that we can get employ to one another and live peacefully together. We do not, he stresses, need to share cardinal values or agree on everything.1.2 The Shattered MirrorAppiah argues that facial expression at the world clearly shows that there are a variety of ways of life and thought. Human beings are different and that we can learn from each others differences (p4). When we are open to the range of human customs and beliefs, a cosmopolitan openness to the world is perfectly consistent with picking and choosing among the options you find in your assay (p5). However, such exposure to different human customs and beliefs hardly leaves the traveler unattached from his own. Thus, not all disagreements can be resolved and it urges us to pass judgment differences. (pp.4-7)Appiah holds that a complex truth is like images of the shattered mirroreach shard of which reflects one part of a complex truth from its own particular angle. He supposed the deepest mistake is to moot that your little shard of mirror can reflect the whole. Actually, Appiah details out that there is no singular truth. In that case, theres no one shattered mirror there are lots of mirrors, lots of moral truths, and we can at best agree to differ (p11), therefore, we need to embrace pluralism, and adopt a live-and let-live attitude.Appiah cites works by ethnographers, and draws a number of persuasive parallels to establish universality and shared values (good and bad). He stresses that people in far-flung places are the same in that they have gods, food, language, dance music, carvings, medicines, family lives, rituals, jokes and childrens tales. They smiled, slept, had sex and children, wept, and in the end, died (p.14). Another commonality according to Appiah, is that a lot of what we take to be right or unconventional is simply a matter of customs. His melody about ideas and concepts which are common to most cultures in the world, draws further on acts like good pa renting, as well as taboo, which exists in his native Ghana (akywandee), or in Igbo land (nso), but is Polynesian in origin.1.3 The Escape from PositivismAppiah carry throughs of relativism, positivism, and particular the fact and value distinction in this chapter. Appiah claims that the influence of positivism has led to value relativism by splitting values (or ends) from facts about the world (or means), in other words, what philosophers have called the representational fallacy, or the inability to derive an ought from an is. Appiah avers that relativism and positivism often get in the way of the cosmopolitan project and undermine conversation across boundaries. Because every people finds its own ways (to be) good (p16), this conversation is important. It helps us to know others who are different and to learn from them. Simply put, if when we disagree we are both right, because(prenominal) there is nothing to talk about. if we cannot learn from one another what it is right to think and feel and do, then conversation between us will be faineant (p31).From a positivist slant, Appiah observes that what is custom is linked to values, which in the end, guide our acts, thoughts and our feelings (p 25). It is in this context that he underscores that being kind is an attribute of experience more than any other variable since people learn to be kind by being treated kindly and noticing it.Appiah also emphasises the way our values are wrought by conversations with others, in which we try to shape each others views and feelings, but relativism of that sort isnt a way to encourage conversation, its righteous a reason to fall understood (p 31) because of the relativists toleration.1.4 Facts on the GroundThe chapter is an attack on the positivist notion of fact. Appiah argues that facts are not as solid as we whitethorn suppose. He tries to show that facts are on no more solid ground than values. He uses the example of trying to persuade a traditional Asante (his kinfolk) that witchcraft cannot harm people, to show that facts for the most part depend on what you already believe and what ideas you already have.1.5 Moral DisagreementIn this chapter, Appiah goes on to look at the various ways we can come in conflict over values, which are more likely to arise between people from different societies. They are (1) no shared vocabulary of evaluation. range terms are essentially contestable and they will always be argued about both across cultures and within them. (2) Even when we share the same moral vocabulary, conflict over values might come in varying interpretations of the same vocabulary and (3) giving the same values different weight. However no(prenominal) of this is insurmountable we can agree to do things without agreeing on why (p67), but more important is Appiahs point, pace Samuel Huntingdon, that most conflict is not articulated through warring values in the first place. In fact, intense conflict may arise through dispute over the meaning of the same values (p67), e.g. on abortion, American pro-lifers and pro-abortionists both respect the sanctity of life, but differ on why it is precious and on when life begins. To better understand this point, Appiah gives us other example that, the US and Iraq being at war is not because the people of the two countries have different values. plain this is not a point the politicians in Washington would readily accept, certainly, not the ideologues.Here, Appiah analyses that the Golden Rule-what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others- requires that we should take other peoples interests seriously, take them into account. Appiah suggests that encouraging cosmopolitan engagement, presupposes the acceptance of disagreement. Perhaps, this is why cosmopolitans endorse as a key aim, that we learn about other peoples situations and then use our imagination to passing game in their Moccasins (p.68). He also exposes the failings of the Golden Rule as a principle to live by. Its just that we cant claim that the way is easy.1.6 The Primacy of PracticeAppiah argues that even though moral disagreements can happen and are real, crosscultural conversations about values do not have to end in disagreement, because it is often possible to agree about what to do even when we do not agree on the reasons behind it. For example, we can live in peace and harmony without agreeing on the underlying values. (pp.69-81) Appiah discourages us from insisting on reaching agreements on values by means of reasoned arguments and persuasion. These very often fail to move people. Moreover, if we make this insistence, then we will lose what is worthwhile about conversations across boundaries. As Appiah avers, conversation is hardly guaranteed to lead to agreement about what to think and feel. Yet we go impose on _or_ oppress if we think the point of conversation is to persuade, and imagine it proceeding as a debate, in which points are scored for the Proposition and th e Opposition. Often enough, as Faust said, in the beginning is the movement practices and not principles are what enable us to live together in peace (pp.84-85).When Appiah proposes conversations between people, what he has in mind by conversation is really an engagement with the experience and the ideas of others (p85). In this sense, conversations do not have to lead to consensus about anything, especially not values its enough that it helps people get used to one another (p85).1.7 Imaginary StrangersAppiah argues that the points of entry to crosscultural conversations are things that are shared by those who are in the conversation. They do not need to be universal all they need to be is what these particular people have in common (p97). And human beings everywhere have so much in common. These take on everyday activities, such as buying things, eating, reading the paper, laughing, going to movies, parties and funerals. They also include universal values such as kindness and gen erosity. He argues that these can be entry points to cross cultural conversations, because once we have found enough (things which) we share, there is the further possibility that we will be able to enjoy discovering things we do not yet share(p97), and we can open up more to other ways of thinking, feeling and acting. That is one of the payoffs of cosmopolitan curiosity.Appiah also notes that the problem of cross-cultural communication can see immensely difficult in theory, when we are trying to imagine making sense of a stranger in the abstract. But the great lesson of anthropology is that when the stranger is no longer imaginary, but real and present, sharing a human social life, you may like or dislike him, you may agree or disagree but, if it is what you both expect, you can make sense of each other in the end (pp.98-99).1.8 Cosmopolitan ContaminationIn the seventh chapter called Cosmopolitan Contamination, Appiah argues against those who criticize globalization for producin g homogeneity and getting rid of cultural differences. He claims that globalization is also a threat to homogeneity because it creates new forms of difference (p101-105). He thinks that instead of the talk of preserving diversity and trapping people in conditions they want to escape from, we have got to let people choose for themselves. He mentions that cosmopolitans think human variety matters because people are entitled to the options they need to shape their lives in partnership with others (p104). Appiah also writes of the trouble with cultural imperialism, he believes that people in each place make their own uses even of the most famous global commodities (p113). Such as the fact that Levis are worn on every continent. In some places they are informal wear in others they are dressy(p113).They are not blank tablets on which global capitalism can write whatever it wants, they are not fools but they can resist. That is why something does not ever change, like the personal identit y of a society can survive when cultures are make of continuities and changes.1.9 Whose Culture Is It, Anyway?Appiah begins by pointing out that some of the museums of the world, particularly in the West, have large collections of objects and artefacts which were looted from poor and developing countries. He then asks who owns these cultural artefacts and properties? Our first answer may be that since they make up the cultural heritage of a people, they belong to the people and culture from whom they were taken. Appiah disputes this and argues that the right way is to take not a national but a cosmopolitan perspective to ask what establishment of international rules about objects of this sort will respect the many legitimate human interests at stake (pp.126-127). If some cultural artefacts are of potential value to all human beings, they should belong to all of humanity. He thinks that when they make a contribution to world culture, they should be protected by being made available to those who would benefit from experiencing them and put into the trusteeship of humanity (pp.130-134). Appiah argues that quite than focusing on returning stolen art and putting a lot of money and effort into it, it may serve the interest of those whose artefacts were stolen better to be exposed to a decent collection of art from around the world, like people everywhere else.1.10 The Counter-CosmopolitanismAppiahs writing on Believers without Borders as in Doctors without Borders is instructive in explaining universalism as well as its driving motives and consequencesThey believe in human dignity across nations share ideals with people in many countries, speaking many languages they would never go to war for (a) country, but they will enlist (in a) campaign against any nation that gets in the way of universal justice. They are young, global Muslim fundamentalist they are the recruiting ground of Al Qaeda (pp. 137-138).Appiah goes on to suggest that such fundamentalism exemplifies the universal ethics, which inverts the picture of Cosmopolitanism and in the absence of toleration, turns easily to murder (p141).For example, Islamic and Christian fundamentalists who seek a community of those who share their faith and reject all national and local allegiances have no tolerance for religious difference. We should be circumspect of and reject universal community, because they can lead to bloodbaths, which is one lesson we can learn from the sad history of Christian religious warfare in Europe (p141). so Appiah turns to argue that their universalism is contrary to cosmopolitanism which embraces pluralism and promotes the view that our knowledge is imperfect and provisional and that we might learn something from those we disagree with. As he writes to say what, in principle, distinguishes the cosmopolitan from the counter-cosmopolitan, we plainly need to go beyond talk of truth and tolerance. One distinctively cosmopolitan commitment is to pluralism. Cosmopolitans think that there are many values worth living by and that you cannot live by all of them. So we hope and expect that different people and different societies will embody different values. (But they have to be values worth living by.) Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is what philosophers call fallibilism the sense that our knowledge is imperfect, provisional, subject to revision in the face of new tell (p 144).If cosmopolitanism is, in a slogan, universality plus difference, there are the other enemies of cosmopolitanism. They reject universality altogether, and claim that not everyone matters. One such inescapable obligation is this when you do something that harms someone else, you moldiness be able to justify it. Those we think of are willing to claim that not everyone matters. They tell us why. Such and such people are destroying our nation they are inferior It is not actually that they dont matter its that they have earned our hatred or contempt. They deserve what we are doing to them (pp.150-152).Appiah avers that the real challenge to cosmopolitanism isnt the belief that other people dont matter at all its the belief that they dont matter very much. Its easy to get agreement that we have some obligations to strangers. We cant do terrible thing to them. (p153)1.11 Kindness to StrangersAppiah looks at the question of what do we owe strangers? His answer is mainly negative. Appiah begins by referring the viewpoints of dick vocaliser and Peter Unger. The Singer principle (from the works of Peter Singer) states If you can prevent something bad from happening at the cost of something less bad, you ought to do it (p 160). Unger takes it a step further by stating that it would be immoral not to donate all of ones wealthiness to organizations, such as UNICEF and Oxfam, which benefit less fortunate people. Based on these beliefs, Singer and Unger would likely agree that it would be wrong to spend money on the opera if that money could otherwise be used to sav e the life of a child (p159-162). Appiah, however, doesnt agree with that decision. He believes that Singer and Unger are missing a key piece of morality and human nature It is illogical-and just plain wrong- to collide with that a person values all lives equally. In reality, a person is likely to value the people around them, such as family and friends, and even themselves, over those whom they have never met. Thats not to say that such a person does not care about other, unknown people it is only to reaffirm the fact that humans prefer familiarity. Cosmopolitanism cannot and does not demand from us to have more sympathy and concern for strangers than those close to us. In addition, Singer and Ungers principles are vague and without exceptions. They dont seem to consider all possible situations and they fail to account for human nature. As Appiah mentions, if everyone spent all of their money to save starving children and none on activities they enjoy, the world would be a flat an d dreary place. (p 166) No one would want to live at all if they werent able to do things other than saving other peoples lives. People need destroytainment and joy in their lives in order to be happy and successful. These thinkers are mistaken to burden us with incredible obligations which would dramatically reduce the quality of our lives (pp.156-166). It is much more helpful, as Appiah believes, to contribute, in whatever way possible, to a cause that will focus on improving the general living conditions of a location, which, in turn, will eliminate the hunger of the children living there. Providing clean water or a better education system to tierce World children will do more for their future than simply feeding them for a day, which, as Appiah points out, may actually be detrimental to the farmers and the economy of the area. And it wouldnt necessarily require all of ones wealth to be donated to the cause in order to make it happen.As Appiah points out, Singer and Unger seem to imply that all values can be measured in a single thin currency of goodness and badness and those decisions should be made ground on a comparability of the amounts of this currency for each possible outcome (p 166). That theory is a misguided and an inaccurate one, as it fails to account for outside forces. All decisions must be made by considering the many variables involved this morality price, as one might call it, is only one such variable. According to Appiah, whatever our obligations are to strangers, they must not be too burdensome because these are not the only obligations that matter. As such, Appiah is correct in his conclusions that neither the Singer principle nor Ungers beliefs should be the repair guiding force in ones decision-making process. While it may be prehend to assign the morality price a heavy weight when it comes to making a decision, it is impossible to force the human mind to think only of such a value. As Appiah argues, human values and decision ma king processes should be based on more than just one specific rule-designed by one specific human. The world is too complex for one sentence to handle.Appiah also makes an argument based on the saying that the end justifies the means. Slavery, in and of itself, is wrong the existence of the pyramids or of the United States, however, is not. Plus, it is unreasonable to assume that giving away all of ones wealth will cause any permanent change. It is more likely that doing so would simply prolong the possibly-dreadful life of a starving child for a confine period of time. After that, the living conditions of the child would simply return to their previous state.2 Evaluations2.1 The Notion of CosmopolitanismAppiahs chosen word to describe this task in this book is cosmopolitanism. This term can be traced back to the founding father of the Cynic movement in Ancient Greece,Diogenes of Sinope(c. 412 B.C.). Of Diogenes it is said Asked where he came from, he answered I am a citizen of the world (kosmopolits)1. The word of Cosmopolitan derives from Greekcosmos(theUniverse) andpolis (city). Appiah picks this term to suggest the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (moral, religious, political, etc.). According to the meaning which is intended , he finds cosmopolitan superior to globalization, which is an overused word that can mean everything from a marketing outline to an economic thesis, or multiculturalism, which he says is another shape shifter, which so often designates the disease it purports to cure. Appiah admits that cosmopolitanism can have elitist connotations. But its actually a term rooted more in the idea of cosmos the universe talk of cosmopolitanism originally signaled a rejection of the conventional view that every civilized person belonged to a community among communities.In order to better understand the n otion of Cosmopolitanism in the book, it is necessary to make a brief survey of the differences in meaning among some conceptions, which are relativism, universalism, nationalism, patriotism and liberalism. Relativism refers to any of several descriptive, meta-ethical, or normative positionsregarding the differences in moral or ethical judgments between different people and cultures. Universalism is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies universally, that is, for all similarly situated individuals, regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexuality, or other distinguishing feature. Nationalisminvolves a strong identification of ones social identity with that of anationor state.Patriotismis love and devotion to ones country.Liberalism is the belief in the importance oflibertyandequality. And, Cosmopolitanism is in a slogan, universality plus difference (p151).2.2 Relativism and CosmopolitanismRelativists claim that not ever ything is local custom, and they argue that education must be morally neutral, and that all values are situational and negotiable. Appiah thinks it is mercifully fading out. Appiah rejects cultural relativism, he pushes it further toward obsolescence and denies a key tenet of relativism, which he describes as the basic suspicion that moral claims just reflect local preferences rather than universal truths. before relativisms destruction, its proponents relied on the comfortable certainty that tolerance trumped all other values. For relativists, dealing with multiple cultures was easy Just tolerate everything. But in the absence of that idea, how do we relate to what Appiah calls a world of strangers? Since there are some values that are, and should be, universal, do we deliberately rinse away all expressions of cultural diversity that dont exert those universals? If values are universal, how can we maintain them while still respecting cultural distinctness? How can we avoid the pit fall those relativists feared, that of imposing our values on others? Appiah makes it work. He avers that Cosmopolitanism helps us find ways to consider such conceptual complexities. As mentioned before, Appiahs cosmopolitanism intertwines two ideas, obligations to others and value of particular human lives. For the cosmopolitan, then, no local loyalty can ever justify forgetting that each human being has responsibilities to every other. Those responsibilities are best played out in conversations across differences where the language of values helps us coordinate our lives with one another.2.3 GlobalizationAppiah talks about globalization in chapter 7. He is dismissive of those who are critical of globalization and focuses only on one aspect of their criticisms, namely their worry that globalization wipes out local cultures. So he does not address the worry that the global financial institutions and multinational corporations want to expand the world markets for their own interests and that they undercut and weaken local governments, laws, and decision-making. Western industrial nations promote free trade, but this in fact benefits them and makes them richer and more powerful. The agriculture and export subsidies in the West are one of the main causes of agricultural decline in many developing countries. So globalization per petuates and worsens the unequal balance of power between rich industrial and poor developing countries, rather than addressing it in any way. Appiah casts the critics of globalization as people who are afraid of change, but some of the critics are legitimately concerned with global justice and local sovereignty.2.4 Cosmopolitan JusticeCosmopolitan justice is discussed in Chapter10, but it is a little weak. One of the main components of Appiahs cosmopolitanism is ethical commitment to strangers. But his view of what this amounts to is very thin. Instead of speculating about what commitments we incur if we want to make the world a intima tely better place, Appiah comes up with a list of constraints. He is very critical of the idea of world government as a vehicle for upholding and guaranteeing peoples basic rights. For Appiah the primary(a) mechanism for ensuring basic rights is the nation-state. Appiah then warns us about those who want to burden us with too much and urge us to overlook our obligations to those close to us and to our own self and projects.It is difficult to see how the concerns which underpin cosmopolitan ethics or justice can be addressed solely in the context of national politics. Those who are passionate about cosmopolitan justice are concerned about extreme poverty, tyranny, oppression, and environmental degradation. Seriously addressing these seems to also require work with international organizations which go beyond national borders and forming connections and associations with others elsewhere who have similar goals.Moreover, despite Appiahs legitimate worries about establishing a world go vernment, it is clear that world giving medication bodies and institutions, such as United Nations and World Bank, already exist, deal with cosmopolitan justice issues, and have much power. At the least, making the world more just would demand that these institutions become more democratic and fair and do a better job of protecting peoples rights.2.5 Global ConversationCosmopolitanism works because values like courtesy, hospitality, generosity and reciprocity are widely shared, alongside other basic concepts and social customs, to enable differences to be explored. Appiah thinks that we share enough to work through human differences. Commonality allows for a global conversation. In the end, attaining a state of peaceful, diverse co-existence is more important to cosmopolitanism than resolving all conflict over human values either philosophically or politically. Appiah calls for a global conversation to make our world suitable for coexistence and living well. But he does not refer t o appropriate ways. When we look for some enlightenment in the context of Chinese Confucianism, we can find that Confucian toleration has some characteristics of engagement in such conversations the characteristics are openness to t